All the Types of Bilingualism Listed Down and Explained

December 19, 2024

Bilingualism comes with its own set of subcategories. It depends on when a person learns a second language as well as the effects and abilities they acquire after learning it. Some bilinguals have very strong skills in both languages, while others may not be able to actively use one of them. I’ve listed the categories of bilingualism so you won’t get confused again. These types are often discussed in relation to bilingual children, but they also apply to adults. The types of bilingualism are: additive, subtractive, receptive, subordinate, compound, coordinate, simultaneous, and sequential. Let’s break down what each of them means.

These types can be divided into three groups based on specific criteria, making them easier to remember.

The level of L1 or L2

This group includes four subcategories of bilingualism and is based on the speaker’s proficiency in their first (L1) and second (L2) languages.

Additive bilingualism

Additive bilingualism occurs when the learner, often a child, learns a second language while reinforcing their first language. A typical example is a child who emigrates with their family to a foreign country (this can also include second- or third-generation immigrants). The child learns one language at home while speaking another at school. When parents actively reinforce the heritage language, the child grows up with two dominant languages. In this case, the second language does not diminish the first but adds to their overall language skills—hence the term "additive bilingualism."

Subtractive bilingualism

Subtractive bilingualism happens when a child learns a second language without reinforcing the first one, leading to a loss of knowledge in the first language. For example, families that primarily use the societal language and do not maintain consistent use of their heritage language may see this occur.

In adults, subtractive bilingualism can happen when someone learns a third language, such as after moving to another country, and begins to lose proficiency in their second language. In this case, the mother tongue often remains unaffected.

Receptive bilingualism

Receptive bilingualism refers to individuals who understand a second language but cannot actively use it. This is also known as passive bilingualism. It is common in people who lived in a different country during childhood but did not maintain active use of that language as they grew up.

Subordinate bilingualism

Subordinate bilingualism typically applies to adults learning a second language. These learners have one strong language—their mother tongue—and rely on it to understand the second language. In this case, the second language is not fully independent from the first, as learners often translate between the two.

Learning in the Same or Different Contexts

Bilingualism can also be classified based on whether the two languages are learned in the same or different environments.

Compound bilingualism

Compound bilingualism occurs when two languages are learned in the same context, such as at home or school. A typical example is a child of bilingual parents. This child learns vocabulary and grammar for both languages simultaneously, often resulting in one concept having two verbal expressions. Early learning stages might involve mixing words from both languages in a single sentence, but children eventually separate the languages. However, the connection between the two languages remains stronger than in other types of bilingualism

Coordinate bilingualism

Coordinate bilingualism occurs when each language is learned in a separate environment, such as one at home and another at school. In this case, the child keeps the languages more distinct in their mind and is less likely to mix them while speaking during early years.

Based on the Time of Acquiring a Second Language

The final group of bilingualism is determined by whether the acquisition of the second language overlaps with the first.

Simultaneous bilingualism

As the name suggests, simultaneous bilingualism refers to learning two languages at the same time. This typically happens before the age of three, when the first language has not yet been fully acquired. The overlap creates a mix that is later separated into two distinct languages.

There are limits to how many languages a child can learn simultaneously. You can explore more on this topic in dedicated studies.

Sequential bilingualism

Sequential bilingualism, also called successive bilingualism, occurs when a second language is learned after the first one has been acquired, usually after the age of three.

In this case, the first language is often used to make sense of the second one. The extent of this reliance depends on the age and abilities of the learner. Sequential bilingualism allows for the acquisition of multiple languages, as demonstrated by hyperpolyglots like Emil Krebs, who spoke almost 70 languages, or modern figures like Vaughn Smith.

The other types of bilingualism

Researchers may classify bilinguals further into subgroups, such as early or late bilinguals. Feel free to share if I missed any other categories!

Let’s sum up

Many people claim to be bilingual, but as we’ve seen, there are numerous types of bilingualism. This classification helps researchers better understand language learning and how our brain processes languages. It can also be valuable for parents of bilingual children, as it highlights recurring patterns in learning strategies and future language proficiency.

Happy learning!